overcome the ShockleyQueisser limit. The Shockley-Queisser limit is the maximum photovoltaic efficiency obtained for a solar cell with respect to the absorber bandgap. Our recent work demonstrated that a thin layer of ZnO nanoparticles can effectively conduct electrons to the AgNW electrode and, more importantly, enable the deposition of the AgNW electrode by doctor blading from water-based solution.16,17 However, both ZnO and AgNW layers are obviously not compact enough to protect the underlying subcells from solvent infiltration during the top subcell deposition. In a traditional solid-state semiconductor such as silicon, a solar cell is made from two doped crystals, one an n-type semiconductor, which has extra free electrons, and the other a p-type semiconductor, which is lacking free electrons, referred to as "holes." 4b. In our SP triple-junction devices, the top cell is connected in parallel with the bottom series-tandem cell which gives a VOC of 1.1V. To match the voltage between the parallel-connected components and thereby maximize the overall efficiency, a top cell with a VOC value identical or close to the VOC of the bottom series-tandem cell is desired. Soc. 5c,d, if we mathematically add the JV curves of the DPPDPP subcells with the top PCDTBT or OPV12 subcell at each voltage bias (Vbias), a perfect fitting of the constructed JV curve with the experimentally measured JV curve of the triple-junction device is observed, which is consistent with Kirchhoff's law. Triple-junction hybrid tandem solar cells with amorphous silicon and polymer-fullerene blends. and N.G. B. et al. The cell may be more sensitive to these lower-energy photons. (c) Calculated JSC values of the semitransparent, opaque perovskite cells and the proposed triple-junction devices (perovskite/DPPDPP) as a function of layer thickness of the perovskite. Normal silicon cells quickly saturate, while GaAs continue to improve at concentrations as high as 1500 times. Exceeding the Shockley-Queisser Limit Within the Detailed Balance Energy Environ. Shockley-Queisser limit: loss processes and potential efficiency Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. To evaluate the as-designed recombination contacts, series-connected reference tandem cells using DPP:PC60BM as two identical active layers (denoted as DPPDPP) were first constructed. To verify the compatibility of the two wide bandgap donors with the AgNW electrode, single-junction reference cells of PCDTBT:PC70BM and OPV12:PC60BM were first processed on both indium tin oxide (ITO) and AgNWs-coated glass substrates for comparison (Fig. The ratio of the open-circuit voltage to the band-gap voltage Shockley and Queisser call V. Under open-circuit conditions, we have. <E g (light blue) and cool (green . . Overcoming Shockley-Queisser limit using halide perovskite platform Band gap - Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia While blue light has roughly twice the energy of red light, that energy is not captured by devices with a single p-n junction. The maximum value of f without light concentration (with reflectors for example) is just f/2, or 1.09105, according to the authors. Beiley, Z. M. & McGehee, M. D. Modeling low cost hybrid tandem photovoltaics with the potential for efficiencies exceeding 20%. ISSN 2041-1723 (online). Solution processed polymer tandem solar cell using efficient small and wide bandgap polymer:fullerene blends. Ashraf, R. S. et al. Adv. To achieve a reliable contact between the middle AgNW electrode and probes of the measurement set-ups (JV and EQE measurements), silver paste or evaporated silver was applied to the exposed AgNWs (Supplementary Fig. 3, 10621067 (2013) . Towards 15% energy conversion efficiency: a systematic study of the solution-processed organic tandem solar cells based on commercially available materials. For a zoc of 32.4, we find zm equal to 29.0. As discussed above, photons with energy below the bandgap are wasted in ordinary single-junction solar cells. [22] A hybrid thermophotovoltaic platform exploiting thermal upconversion was theoretically predicted to demonstrate maximum conversion efficiency of 73% under illumination by non-concentrated sunlight. 1a), series/parallel (SP, Fig. He . 7, 399407 (2014) . Detailed Balance | PVEducation F.G. and C.J.B. For both triple-junction solar cells, the bottom series-connected DPPDPP subcells showed VOC values of 1.071.08V, indicating that the solution-processing of the upper layers imposes no negative effect on the established bottom subcells. [10] This accounts for about 33% of the incident sunlight, meaning that, for silicon, from spectrum losses alone there is a theoretical conversion efficiency limit of about 48%, ignoring all other factors. 3 Optical Modeling of Photovoltaic Modules with Ray Tracing Simulations 27 Carsten Schinke, Malte R.Vogt and Karsten Bothe. However, due to finite temperature, optical excitations are possible below the optical gap. Org. The JSC values of the top subcells were verified with EQE measurement (Supplementary Fig. The multi-junction concept is the most relevant approach to overcome the ShockleyQueisser limit for single-junction photovoltaic cells. 1.5-1.6 eV bandgap Pb-based perovskite solar cells (PSCs) with 30-31% theoretical efficiency limit by the Shockley-Queisser model achieve 21-24% power conversion efficiencies (PCEs). 3.1.1 Terminology 30. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the articles Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if the material is not included under the Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. conceived the device concept. Centurioni, E. Generalized matrix method for calculation of internal light energy flux in mixed coherent and incoherent multilayers. However, the parallel-connection is more difficult to adapt and optimize for the high-performance semiconductors with non-tunable bandgaps, such as single-crystal silicon or CdTe. [24], A related concept is to use semiconductors that generate more than one excited electron per absorbed photon, instead of a single electron at the band edge. This leads to a higher interest in lowering the bandgap of perovskite. Li, N. et al. Phys. These cells require the use of semiconductors that can be tuned to specific frequencies, which has led to most of them being made of gallium arsenide (GaAs) compounds, often germanium for red, GaAs for yellow, and GaInP2 for blue. Tandem polymer solar cells featuring a spectrally matched low-bandgap polymer. All the authors commented on the manuscript. Based on the convenient solution-processing along with the impressive high FFs, we expect that significant enhancement in efficiency can be achieved by exploiting high-performance wide bandgap materials with matched VOC in the back subcell. Commun. 3). We began the fabrication of the SP triple-junction devices by designing and processing a semitransparent series-connected double-junction solar cell, as shown in Fig. This means that during the finite time while the electron is moving forward towards the p-n junction, it may meet a slowly moving hole left behind by a previous photoexcitation. If the band gap is large, not as many photons create pairs, whereas if the band gap is small, the electron-hole pairs do not contain as much energy. ( Environmentally printing efficient organic tandem solar cells with high fill factors: a guideline towards 20% power conversion efficiency. Efficient tandem polymer solar cells fabricated by all-solution processing. Eventually enough will flow across the boundary to equalize the Fermi levels of the two materials. Materials with higher electron (or hole) mobility can improve on silicon's performance; gallium arsenide (GaAs) cells gain about 5% in real-world examples due to this effect alone. Nat. Band gap - Wikipedia The general applicability of the proposed triple-junction configurations has also been verified in organic-inorganic hybrid triple-junction devices. Abstract. AM1.5 Spectrum One example is amorphous silicon solar cells, where triple-junction tandem cells are commercially available from Uni-Solar and other companies. This first calculation used the 6000K black-body spectrum as an approximation to the solar spectrum. c }, (Shockley and Queisser take fc to be a constant, although they admit that it may itself depend on voltage. [9]), The rate of generation of electron-hole pairs not due to incoming sunlight stays the same, so recombination minus spontaneous generation is, I In particular, to exceed the ShockleyQueisser limit, it is necessary for the fluorescent material to convert a single high-energy photon into several lower-energy ones (quantum efficiency > 1). J. (a) Simulated current density distribution of the three subcells as a function of the thicknesses of bottom two DPP:PC60BM layers. Google Scholar. Wide bandgap metal halide perovskites materials are of interest for application as top subcells in multijunction devices. The EQE measurement of a prepared semitransparent perovskite cell (Supplementary Fig. Solution-processed next generation thin film solar cells for indoor The principle of voltage matching also constrains a semiconductors applicability with respect to its bandgap, as well as inherently bears potential performance losses with respect to non-ideal open circuit voltages (VOC). Shockley-Queisser Limit, Theoretical Maximum solar cell efficiency For a zoc of 32.4, this comes to 86.5%. Adv. Enhancing electron diffusion length in narrow-bandgap perovskites for When the voltage is non-zero, the concentrations of charge carriers (electrons and holes) change (see Shockley diode equation), and according to the authors the rate of recombination changes by a factor of exp(V/Vc), where Vc is the voltage equivalent of the temperature of the cell, or "thermal voltage", namely. These photons will pass through the solar cell without being absorbed by the device. C.J.B., F.G. and N.L. Using methods similar to the original ShockleyQueisser analysis with these considerations in mind produces similar results; a two-layer cell can reach 42% efficiency, three-layer cells 49%, and a theoretical infinity-layer cell 68% in non-concentrated sunlight.[5]. A., Roman, L. S. & Inganas, O. Further, we believe that the novel, but generic, concept demonstrated in this work potentially provides a promising avenue to approach or exceed the ShockleyQueisser limit of many of the currently available high-performance semiconductors such as crystalline silicon, CdTe and perovskite solar cells42,43,44. Using a more accurate spectrum may give a slightly different optimum. The slightly lower FFs for the devices fabricated on AgNWs as compared with the ITO counterparts can be ascribed to the higher series resistance (RS), probably resulting from the contact resistance between the AgNWs and ZnO. Although efficiencies exceeding 15% have been frequently reported, it is widely acknowledged that the moderate bandgap of 1.55eV offers enormous potential to further enhance the device efficiency by using multi-junction configurations39,40. The device structure of the single and tandem reference cells are: Glass/ITO/PEDOT:PSS/DPP:PC60BM/Ca/Ag and Glass/ITO/PEDOT:PSS/DPP:PC60BM/ZnO/N-PEDOT/DPP:PC60BM/Ca/Ag. Energy Environ. Exceeding the solar cell Shockley-Queisser limit via thermal up If the band gap is too high, most daylight photons cannot be absorbed; if it is too low, then most photons have much more energy than necessary to excite electrons . 4. is the number of photons above the band-gap energy falling on the cell per unit area, and ts is the fraction of these that generate an electron-hole pair. Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter what matters in science, free to your inbox daily. Sub-1.4eV bandgap inorganic perovskite solar cells with long-term Hirst, L. C. & Ekins-Daukes, N. J. However, there are two problems with this assumption. Designing Heterovalent Substitution with Antioxidant Attribute for High Green, M. A., Emery, K., Hishikawa, Y., Warta, W. & Dunlop, E. D. Solar cell efficiency tables (Version 45). Thus, the novel triple-junction concept demonstrated in this work provides an easy but elegant way to manufacture highly efficient photovoltaic cells, not only for conventional but also for the emerging solar technologies. Light absorbers DPP, OPV12 and PCDTBT were purchased from BASF, Polyera and 1-Materials, respectively. Highly efficient and bendable organic solar cells with solution-processed silver nanowire electrodes. CAS 6, Erlangen, 91052, Germany, Carina Bronnbauer,Yi Hou&Christoph J. Brabec, Center for Nanoanalysis and Electron Microscopy (CENEM), Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nrnberg, Cauerstrasse 6, Erlangen, 91058, Germany, Vuk V. Radmilovi,Velimir R. Radmilovi&Erdmann Spiecker, Innovation Center, Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Karnegijeva 4, Belgrade, 11120, Serbia, Nanotechnology and Functional Materials Center, Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Karnegijeva 4, Belgrade, 11120, Serbia, You can also search for this author in Optical transmittance spectra of this intermediate layer and the entire semitransparent tandem DPPDPP solar cell are shown in Fig. F.G. and N.L. Hendriks, K. H., Li, W. W., Wienk, M. M. & Janssen, R. A. J. Small-bandgap semiconducting polymers with high near-infrared photoresponse. The calculated bandgap required for the semiconductor to achieve the Shockley-Queisser limit is 1.34 eV , which is higher than the average band gap of perovskite materials. and E.S. Noticeably, from Table 2 we can see that the measured photocurrents of the triple-junction cells are more or less identical to the sum JSC values extracted from the respective bottom DPPDPP subcells and top PCDTBT or OPV12 subcells. It was first calculated by William Shockley and Hans-Joachim Queisser at Shockley Semiconductor in 1961, giving a maximum efficiency of 30% at 1.1 eV. [29] In contrast, considerable progress has been made in the exploration of fluorescent downshifting, which converts high-energy light (e. g., UV light) to low-energy light (e. g., red light) with a quantum efficiency smaller than 1. Accordingly, the SP interconnection provides a more feasible approach to reach its theoretical efficiency limit. One way to reduce this waste is to use photon upconversion, i.e. A cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image of a SP triple-junction solar cell is shown in Fig. 0 Pettersson, L. A. Snaith, H. J. Perovskites: the emergence of a new era for low-cost, high-efficiency solar cells. The generalized Shockley-Queisser limit for nanostructured solar cells Developing multijunction perovskite solar cells (PSCs) is an attractive route to boost PSC efficiencies to above the single-junction Shockley-Queisser limit. (d) Three-dimensional efficiency map of the SP triple-junction organic solar cells as a function of the absorbers bandgaps of the three subcells. However, the stringent current-matching criterion presents primarily a material challenge and permanently requires developing and processing novel semiconductors with desired bandgaps and thicknesses. Tang, J. et al. Of the 1,000 W/m2 in AM1.5 sunlight, about 19% of that has less than 1.1 eV of energy, and will not produce power in a silicon cell. 3. C.O.R.Q., C.B. For a variety of reasons, holes in silicon move much more slowly than electrons. Organometal halide perovskites have emerged as promising materials that enable fabrication of highly efficient solar cells by solution deposition38,39,40. Nano Lett. The front 200-nm-thick perovskite cell exhibits a JSC of 16mAcm2, which is slightly affected by the interference of the device. Adv. Soc. Energy Environ. A typical current density versus voltage (JV) characteristic of the as-prepared semitransparent tandem solar cells (Fig. Absorption of a photon creates an electron-hole pair, which could potentially contribute to the current. The V loss t otal of OSCs can be expressed in terms of E 1, E 2, and E 3 in V loss total = (E g PV /q V oc SQ) + (V oc SQ V oc Rad) + (V oc Rad V oc PV) = E 1 + E 2 + E 3, where q, E g PV, V oc SQ, V oc rad, and V oc PV are the elementary charge, photovoltaic band gap, maximum voltage in the Shockley-Queisser (SQ) limit . This allows for higher theoretical efficiencies when coupled to a low bandgap semiconductor[26] and quantum efficiencies exceeding 100% have been reported. These two problems are solved in Ozdemir-Barone method. 5) and the values calculated by integrating the EQE curve with standard AM1.5 G spectrum show a good agreement with the measured JSC values. Article In silicon this reduces the theoretical performance under normal operating conditions by another 10% over and above the thermal losses noted above. (At that value, 22% of the blackbody radiation energy would be below the band gap.) & Blom, P. W. M. Device operation of organic tandem solar cells. That atom will then attempt to remove an electron from another atom, and so forth, producing an ionization chain reaction that moves through the cell. 5, 91739179 (2012) . [30] For example, silicon quantum dots enabled downshifting has led to the efficiency enhancement of the state-of-the-art silicon solar cells. 23, 41774184 (2013) . For example, a planar thermal upconverting platform can have a front surface that absorbs low-energy photons incident within a narrow angular range, and a back surface that efficiently emits only high-energy photons. ADS Science 334, 15301533 (2011) . (c) Typical JV curves of the single-junction DPP reference cell, tandem DPPDPP reference cell and the semitransparent tandem DPPDPP cell with AgNW top electrode. Optimal Location of the Intermediate Band Gap Energy in the Intermediate Band Solar Cell Scharber, M. C. et al. prepared the semitransparent perovskite cells. Second, the VOC of the back cell, which is consisting of a series-connection of deep NIR absorbers, can be custom fabricated by stacking an arbitrary sequence of semiconductors with different bandgaps in series. 32, 236241 (2007) . 92, 41174122 (2002) . For organic solar cells, we followed the model proposed by Dennler et al.14,15 to calculate the efficiency potential for the four types of triple-junction architectures as a function of the bandgaps of three absorbers. The author has an hindex of 5, co-authored 8 publication(s) receiving 63 citation(s). Solution-processed parallel tandem polymer solar cells using silver nanowires as intermediate electrode. Microcavity-enhanced light-trapping for highly efficient organic parallel tandem solar cells. The authors derive the equation, which can be solved to find zm, the ratio of optimal voltage to thermal voltage. The Shockley Queisser Efficiency Limit - Solar Cell Central Sci. The result is a region at the interface, the p-n junction, where charge carriers are depleted on each side of the interface. Thus the rate of recombination, in this model, is proportional to exp(V/Vc) times the blackbody radiation above the band-gap energy: (This is actually an approximation, correct so long as the cell is thick enough to act as a black body, to the more accurate expression[7][8], The difference in maximum theoretical efficiency however is negligibly small, except for tiny bandgaps below 200meV. The light intensity at each wavelength was calibrated with a standard single-crystal Si solar cell. Here to demonstrate the general application of our SP triple-junction architecture, we studied two wide bandgap polymers, poly[N-9-hepta-decanyl-2,7-carbazole-alt-5,5-(4,7-di-2-thienyl-2,1,3-benzothiadiazole)] (PCDTBT, Eg, 1.87eV) and OPV12 (Eg, 1.73eV)33, as the top subcells, which give VOC values of 0.9V and 0.8V when mixed with phenyl-C71-butyric acid methyl ester (PC70BM) and PC60BM, respectively. 96, 23472351 (2004) . Nat. 6) gives a current density of 15.98mAcm2 which is in good agreement with the simulation values (Supplementary Methods for fabrication details). (a) Device architecture of inverted solar cells with AgNW bottom electrode. Thermalization of photoexcited carriers with energies in excess of the bandgap limits the power conversion efficiency (PCE) 1, requiring semiconductor absorbers with longer visible-wavelength . the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Use the Previous and Next buttons to navigate the slides or the slide controller buttons at the end to navigate through each slide. Science 317, 222225 (2007) . When there is a load, then V will not be zero and we have a current equal to the rate of generation of pairs due to the sunlight minus the difference between recombination and spontaneous generation: The open-circuit voltage is therefore given (assuming fc does not depend on voltage) by. Kim, J. Y. et al. ] (At that value, 22% of the blackbody radiation energy would be below the band gap.) 32, 510519 (1961) . They used blackbody radiation of 6000K for sunlight, and found that the optimum band gap would then have an energy of 2.2kTs. It is important to note that the analysis of Shockley and Queisser was based on the following assumptions: None of these assumptions is necessarily true, and a number of different approaches have been used to significantly surpass the basic limit. Fully solution-processing route toward highly transparent polymer solar cells. The hybrid triple-junction solar cell was assembled by stacking a series-connected opaque DPPDPP as back subcell with a semitransparent perovskite device as front subcell. gratefully acknowledge the financial support through the Aufbruch Bayern initiative of the state of Bavaria. The scale bar, 200nm. Similar simulation results for the triple-junction DPPDPP/OPV12 devices are presented in Supplementary Fig. Dyes, rare-earth phosphors and quantum dots are actively investigated for fluorescent downshifting. A generic concept to overcome bandgap limitations for designing highly efficient multi-junction photovoltaic cells. ACS Appl. (This is actually debatable if a reflective surface is used on the shady side.) Mater. Am. Simultaneously, optical simulations based on the transfer matrix formalism were carried out to calculate the current generation in the individual subcells34,35, which can provide valuable guidance for optimization of our SP triple-junction devices. Guo, F. et al. Google Scholar. Nevertheless, these results in combination with the high FFs of up to 68% eventually suggest that the engineered intermediate layers have efficiently coupled the three cells into triple-junction with an integrated SP interconnection. Here, it is assumed that optical absorption starts above the band gap of the material. These factors include the relative cost per area of solar cells versus focusing optics like lenses or mirrors, the cost of sunlight-tracking systems, the proportion of light successfully focused onto the solar cell, and so on. All the individual layers of the solar cell can be clearly distinguished in the scanning TEM (STEM) image without any physical damage. Previous search for low-bandgap (1.2 to 1.4 eV) halide perovskites has resulted in several candidates, but all are hybrid organic-inorganic compositions, raising potential concern regarding . In physics, the radiative efficiency limit (also known as the detailed balance limit, ShockleyQueisser limit, Shockley Queisser Efficiency Limit or SQ Limit) is the maximum theoretical efficiency of a solar cell using a single p-n junction to collect power from the cell where the only loss mechanism is radiative recombination in the solar cell. Appl. It should be noted that the absorption of the DPP polymer donor shows a red-shift of only 50nm compared with the perovskite and, therefore, we expect a significant enhancement when deeper NIR sensitizers are used as back series-connected tandem cells. This is a feasible approach as there are indeed several types of far NIR semiconductors like organic donors10,11 and quantum dots12,13 with an extended absorption beyond 1,000nm. 16.8% Monolithic all-perovskite triple-junction solar cells via a universal two-step solution process, The role of the third component in ternary organic solar cells, The Influence of Solar Spectrum and Concentration Factor on the Material Choice and the Efficiency of Multijunction Solar Cells, Efficient two-terminal all-perovskite tandem solar cells enabled by high-quality low-bandgap absorber layers, High fabrication yield organic tandem photovoltaics combining vacuum- and solution-processed subcells with 15% efficiency, Perovskiteorganic tandem solar cells with indium oxide interconnect, Opportunities and challenges for tandem solar cells using metal halide perovskite semiconductors, Charge carrier-selective contacts for nanowire solar cells, Next-generation applications for integrated perovskite solar cells, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, Impact of Operating Temperature and Solar Concentration on the Conversion Efficiency of InGaP/InGaAs/Ge Hybrid Triple-Junction Solar Cell, Mixed 2D-DionJacobson/3D Sn-Pb alloyed perovskites for efficient photovoltaic solar devices, Bidirectional photocurrent in pn heterojunction nanowires, Observation of mixed types of energy gaps in some IIVI semiconductors nanostructured films: towards enhanced solar cell performance, The fabrication of color-tunable organic light-emitting diode displays via solution processing. PC60BM (99.5%) and PC70BM (99%) were purchased from Solenne BV. Shockley and Queisser call the efficiency factor associated with spectrum losses u, for "ultimate efficiency function". Mater. Li, N. et al. We show a material bandgap of 1.82-1.96 eV to allow a limiting 51-57% PCE for a single-junction device under various indoor illuminations. 24, 21302134 (2012) . 5a) was fabricated using a procedure as described in the Supplementary Methods45. By taking this into account, the theoretical efficiency of crystalline silicon solar cells was calculated to be 29.4%.[11]. : . The authors declare no competing financial interests. [3] That is, of all the power contained in sunlight (about 1000 W/m2) falling on an ideal solar cell, only 33.7% of that could ever be turned into electricity (337 W/m2). In practice, the choice of whether or not to use light concentration is based primarily on other factors besides the small change in solar cell efficiency. Commun. Phys. Dimerized small-molecule acceptors enable efficient and stable organic The light grey dashed lines indicate the numerical addition of the bottom series-tandem subcells and the top subcell. The second active layer DPP:PC60BM with thickness of 80nm was then coated on top of N-PEDOT at 55C. Rep. 4, 7154 (2014) . Figure 5c,d show the typical JV curves of the constructed triple-junction solar cells, DPPDPP/PCDTBT and DPPDPP/OPV12, along with the constituent subcells, respectively. 6, 34073413 (2013) . The power conversion efficiency (PCE) of a single-junction photovoltaic cell is fundamentally constrained by the ShockleyQueisser limit1. Recombination between electrons and holes is detrimental in a solar cell, so designers try to minimize it. F.G. and K.F. Song, M. et al. of states. J. Appl. 18, 789794 (2006) . Thermal upconversion is based on the absorption of photons with low energies in the upconverter, which heats up and re-emits photons with higher energies. In a cell at room temperature, this represents approximately 7% of all the energy falling on the cell. Kim, T. et al. [13] Since imaginary dielectric functions is, even though low, non-zero below the optical gap, there is absorption of light below the optical gap. In the most common design, a high-bandgap solar cell sits on top, absorbing high-energy, shorter-wavelength light, and transmitting the rest. The optimum depends on the shape of the I versus V curve. {\displaystyle I_{0}=2qt_{c}Q_{c}/f_{c}. Solar cells based on quantum dots: Multiple exciton generation and intermediate bands. I Solar Cell Shockley-Queisser Limit Calculator - GitHub March 28, 2019 In science, the Shockley-Queisser limit, refers to the maximum theoretical efficiency of a conventional solar cell using a single p-n junction to collect power from the cell.
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